‍Central Asia and The Caucasus Journal

Abstract Azerbaijan, by relying on the rich oil and gas resources of the Caspian Sea and projects such as the Baku–Tbilisi–Ceyhan pipeline and the Southern Gas Corridor, has been able to solidify its position as a key player in ensuring Europe's energy security. This policy not only has a foreign dimension but also acts as a tool for internal legitimization. Despite pressures from Russia and Turkey, as well as the developments related to the war in Ukraine, Baku has managed to create a pragmatic balance among the interests of various actors. The main question of the article is: how have energy resources (oil and gas) served as a strategic tool in securing and advancing the macro objectives of the Republic of Azerbaijan in its interaction with the European Union? The research hypothesis is that by adopting a realist approach and utilizing energy as both a lever of pressure and a tool for engagement, Azerbaijan has been able to both elevate its position within the Eurasian and European energy order and use it as an instrument to strengthen internal legitimacy. This article employs the theoretical framework of realism, a qualitative analysis research method, and utilizes secondary sources including scientific articles, reports from research centers, and statistical data up to the year 2025.

Abstract The Literature of the Russian Energy Security: Future Strategies This study surveys the academic literature on Russian energy security, focusing on developments following the onset of the war in Ukraine. Considering the extensive Western sanctions targeting Russia's energy sector, this study explores the key strategic components shaping Russia's contemporary energy security posture. Employing a systematic literature review methodology, 90 pertinent articles and scientific documents published between 2010 and 2024 were selected and analyzed. The analysis focused on three core areas: concepts of energy security, Russian foreign policy, and economic sanctions. Qualitative thematic analysis of the selected literature was conducted using MAXQDA software. To complement the qualitative synthesis and support the interpretation of trends within the literature, descriptive quantitative analyses (such as frequency counts or trend analysis) were performed using SPSS and OriginPro software. The findings indicate that Russia's "Eastern pivot"—a strategic reorientation of energy policy and exports towards Asia—has gained prominence as a central element of the country's energy security strategy in the wake of the war in Ukraine and subsequent sanctions.

Abstract Despite the geopolitical importance of Ukraine for Russia, especially the geopolitical aspect of energy, due to the gas pipeline passing through this country to transfer Russian gas to Europe, Ukraine's Western tendencies and the gas crises that have occurred in different years have made Russia try to use it as a tool against Ukraine's actions by creating the Nord Stream facility in addition to providing an alternative option. Considering this issue, the question is how Nord Stream can be used as a weapon against Ukraine. In this regard, it is hypothesized that Russia, by imposing transit bans caused by the replacement of transit pipelines with Nord Stream facilities, and as a result, the weakening of the economic situation and security vulnerability of the pipelines, has turned it into a pressure lever against Ukraine. Investigations show that by ignoring Ukraine, Nord Stream is depriving this country of billions of dollars in revenue from the right of transit, and it also causes the destruction of a major strategic deterrent that always prevents the escalation of Russian aggression against this country. Also, this facility was used in the relations between Russia and Europe after this country invaded Ukraine as a lever of geopolitical pressure of the parties against each other.  

Abstract The existence of a significant level of asymmetric interdependence in Russian-European Union energy relations has fueled Western concerns about the conversion of Russian energy resources into political capital and Kremlin's use of energy leverage to infiltrate Europe and the Near East. At the same time, being engaged with political consequences of dependence to Russian energy, the European Union, in the new security environment following the Ukraine crisis in 2014 and the imposition of unilateral US sanctions on Russia's energy sector, faces new challenges for supplying energy resources. Addressing the mentioned concerns and challenges, the present article seeks to respond to the following question: "How is Russian gas export strategy assessed following Western sanctions since 2014?”  The author argues that although Western sanctions have led into decreasing foreign capital and technology investments in Russia’s energy sector since 2014, the EU's needs for gas imports from Russia have increased meanwhile; therefore the sanctions have not had a significant impact on Russia's energy weapons performance.” Using descriptive-analytical method and an inferential methodology the authors try to find an answer for the research question. While confirming the mentioned hypothesis, the findings show that Russian-European Union interactions in the area of energy will continue under the shadow of US sanctions.

Abstract Central Asia has many capacities to generate and use renewable energy. Addressing energy insecurity in the region may be the strongest incentive for Central Asian governments to develop renewable energy resources. Central Asia is rich in hydrocarbon reserves, but the uneven distribution of these resources across countries, burnout of facilities and inefficient energy management, threaten development of the whole region. However, moving towards alternative energy will also have many other advantages for the Central Asia region, including decreasing concerns about energy security in the region. Promoting regional cooperation is one of the definitive benefits of expanding renewable resources in Central Asian countries that the present paper seeks to address. The present literature tries to find an answer for the following questions: "How do implementing renewable energy projects by central Asian countries affect regional cooperation; and why?” The author argues that due to interdependence of the Central Asian countries in the field of energy, the renewable energy resources as their ​​common interest (and not as a parallel, divergent or conflicting interest) as well as the need for regional countries to have an integrated energy system, implementing renewable energy projects by the Central Asian countries can enhance intergovernmental cooperation in regional integration arena. Using descriptive-analytical method and the causal methodology the author tries to tell why the research findings provide an answer to the research question.

Abstract The article focuses on China’s influence as a rising power in       the Central Asia’s geo-economy. As the outcome of this presence,                the region’s geo-economy has such changed that China became the most important player in the fields of commerce, investment and transit as well. The increasing influence of China in the Central Asia region, has not only changed the regional wealth and power equations, but transformed the traditional rivalry of the great powers into a new era as well. Influenced by the Chinese presence, the ultra regional powers have also been faced with a new type of regional equation. Early indications on the current status of the region show that China's strategic desire is going to expand the geo-economical sphere of influence into an area of geopolitical. In case of continuity and success in diversifying China’s areas of influence in Central Asia, it seems quite likely that the region’s economic and political order will substantively suffer innate changes

Abstract Geographical proximity of Russia and the EU, Moscow’s political, security and economic influence, Russia-EU high trade turnover and sensitive sphere of energy have made inevitable the cooperation and partnership between the EU and Russia. Although Russia is an extremely sophisticated partner for the EU, improving interaction between the two sides is possible and dependent on merging of their political aims on strategic issues including to ensure energy supply security. Energy security is one of the most controversial issues among the Eu - Russia negotiation and cooperation. Since the 1960s, the energy variable has played a vital role, in a way that the formal and informal relations between Russia and European countries have experienced increasing growth. This paper maintains that promoting relations between Russia and the EU would excessively depend on their mutual energy cooperation. Therefore, redefining Russia-EU energy relations and principal goals of Russian energy policy towards EU and vice versa are of considerable importance. From this point of view, the different degree of interdependence in the Russia-EU energy relations, diversified interests and the both sides’ aims in energy policy-making have had a negative impact on the bilateral relations in this strategic area.

Abstract In many texts of international relations, the concept of security is generally considered as the ability to counter the threats of armed attacks. Meanwhile, the scarcity of energy sources has been among the most significant causes of conflicts in the 20^th century. Countries have their own and of course different definitions and perceptions of energy security. For example, in developed countries energy security is defined based on the accessibility and sufficient supply with proper and reasonable prices, while exporting countries regard energy security as the security of demand and an increase of energy prices. In this article, focusing on energy security as our theoretical framework, we will examine the EU-Russian relations in the energy area. Although as an energy exporting country Russia has the upper hand before the EU, which is heavily dependent on importing energy, both sides’ perceptions of energy security have shown that these two actors are dependent on each other at the same level. This type of reliance has created a situation in which they are to have close politico-economic relations.

Abstract Increasing energy consumption and lack of alternative sources for fossil fuels are the main concerns for the industrialized nations of the world. Security of energy supply sources and routes are of high importance for these countries, including the European Union. To reduce its vulnerability and to diversify both sources and routes, the EU has paid special attention to the South Caucasus, but security problems and Russia's influence in the region has encountered some challenges.             To address these challenges and meet its energy security needs, the EU has used a variety of tools and strategies. This article tries to study the EU's energy security strategy and the threats imposed on it in the South Caucasus region. It also shows the EU's attempt to support democratic process and economic liberalization inside the countries of the region and to strengthen the integrating process and its subsequent relationship with the European structures, and the way through which it has increased its presence in the region.

Abstract Energy security is generally defined as to the availability of adequate and reliable supply of energy to meet the demand and is of issues linked directly to the governments and the political units. Having considerable reserves of energy and privileged geopolitical situation (neighboring the two oil-rich Persian Gulf and the Caspian Sea regions), Iran has always drown the regional as well as international powers' attention.             Iran's situation in oil and gas production and their transportation in a relatively stable Persian Gulf have always been acknowledged by all actors, but this role in the Caspian Sea requires more attention within the Iranian decision-makers due to severe and rapid changes after the Soviet collapse. In addition to serious attempts in reaching consensus on the Caspian Sea legal regime based on our national interests, extensive ties with the Caspian Sea littoral states, especially the Russian Federation and the Republics of Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan should not be neglected.           This article is attempting to discuss different aspects of energy security, Iran's stand, current and under construction transportation routes and the policies pursued by international and regional powers.